An exemplary embodiment of the present invention provides a system for forming ammonia, the system comprising: an anode; a cathode in electrical communication with the anode; and a catalyst material positioned in an electrical communication pathway between the cathode and the anode, the catalyst material comprising a plurality of nanoparticles comprising at least one of a conductor and a semiconductor, each of the nanoparticles comprising an interior cavity, wherein the system is configured to use nitrogen and water to generate ammonia.