A volume diffractive optical element (E) comprising: a carrier (1) having an optical relief pattern (P) on at least one surface thereof, and at least one optically functional layer (2) applied over or onto at least one or more portions or relief features (P) of the relief pattern on the carrier (1); wherein in embodiments the at least one optically functional layer (2) comprises a plurality of discrete bodies, beads or globules (2) of optical material applied over or onto the respective individual relief portions or relief features or relief elements (P) of the relief pattern on the carrier (1).