A system including one or more processors and one or more non-transitory computer-readable media storing computing instructions that, when executed on the one or more processors, cause the one or more processors to perform functions including: receiving a respective item description and at least one respective attribute value for each item of a set of items; generating at least one respective text embedding; generating a graph of the set of items based on at least co-view data to create pairs of items that are co-viewed by joining respective pairs of items; training the text embedding model and a machine learning model using a neural loss function based on the graph; and automatically determining, using the machine learning model, as trained, a label for each item of the set of items. Other embodiments are disclosed.