An image forming apparatus includes an image bearing member that bears a toner image; a transfer member that faces the image bearing member, nips a recording medium together with the image bearing member, and allows the recording medium to pass therebetween; a transfer-bias applying unit that applies transfer bias voltage to generate an electric field between the transfer member and the image bearing member; a cleaning member that is disposed in contact with the transfer member and removes toner from the transfer member; a cleaning-bias applying unit that applies cleaning bias voltage between the cleaning member and the transfer member; a transfer-toner-amount estimating unit that estimates an amount of toner to be transferred from the image bearing member to the transfer member when the recording medium does not pass therebetween; and a cleaning-bias controller that controls the cleaning bias voltage in correspondence with the estimated amount of toner.